Human Brain Can Converts Glucose into Fructose

The human brain can produce the sugar fructose, a new small study finds. Researchers found that the brain can convert one form of sugar, called glucose, into another form, called fructose. People who have too much fructose in their diet may face an increased risk of conditions such as type 2 diabetes and obesity.

Previous research has suggested that fructose and glucose act differently in the brain. For example, studies have shown that glucose sends signals of fullness to the brain, but fructose does not, lead study author Dr. Janice Hwang, an assistant professor of medicine at Yale University, said in a statement.

One way glucose is converted to fructose is through a series of chemical reactions called the polyol pathway, the researchers wrote in the study. These reactions, which convert glucose into another sugar called sorbitol, and then convert sorbitol into fructose, occur in tissues throughout the body, including the brain.

Novel monoclonal antibody-use to treat rheumatoid arthritis

Treatment with the novel monoclonal antibody mavrilimumab was associated with decreased disease activity and high rates of clinical responses in patients with moderate-to-severe rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a phase IIb study found.

"Data from this study demonstrate that mavrilimumab, particularly at a dosage of 150 mg every other week, provides a rapid, effective, and well-tolerated potential treatment for patients with rheumatoid arthritis," they observed.

Mavrilimumab blocks the receptor for granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), a proinflammatory cytokine that is involved in the activation and differentiation of neutrophils, dendritic cells, and macrophages and that has been detected in the synovial fluid and tissues of patients with RA.

What standards do generic drugs have to meet?

Health professionals and consumers can be assured that FDA approved generic drugs have met the same rigid standards as the innovator drug. To gain FDA approval, a generic drug must:

1.  It should contain the same active ingredients as the innovator drug(inactive ingredients may vary)

2.  It should be identical in strength, dosage form, and route of administration

3.  It should have the same use indications

4.  It should be bioequivalent

5.  It should meet the same batch requirements for identity, strength, purity, and quality

6.  It should be manufactured under the same strict standards of FDA's good manufacturing practice regulations required for innovator products.

How are generic drugs approved?

Drug companies must submit an abbreviated new drug application (ANDA) for approval to market a generic product. The Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, more commonly known as the Hatch-Waxman Act, made ANDAs possible by creating a compromise in the drug industry. Generic drug companies gained greater access to the market for prescription drugs, and innovator companies gained restoration of patent life of their products lost during FDA's approval process.

New drugs, like other new products, are developed under patent protection. The patent protects the investment in the drug's development by giving the company the sole right to sell the drug while the patent is in effect. When patents or other periods of exclusivity expire, manufacturers can apply to the FDA to sell generic versions.

The ANDA process does not require the drug sponsor to repeat costly animal and clinical research on ingredients or dosage forms already approved for safety and effectiveness. This applies to drugs first marketed after 1962.

Are generic drugs as effective as brand-name drugs?

A generic drug is the same as a brand-name drug in dosage, safety, strength, quality, the way it works, the way it is taken and the way it should be used.

FDA requires generic drugs have the same high quality, strength, purity and stability as brand-name drugs.

Not every brand-name drug has a generic drug. When new drugs are first made they have drug patents. Most drug patents are protected for 20 years. The patent, which protects the company that made the drug first, doesn't allow anyone else to make and sell the drug. When the patent expires, other drug companies can start selling a generic version of the drug. But, first, they must test the drug and the FDA must approve it.

Creating a drug costs lots of money. Since generic drug makers do not develop a drug from scratch, the costs to bring the drug to market are less; therefore, generic drugs are usually less expensive than brand-name drugs. But, generic drug makers must show that their product performs in the same way as the brand-name drug.

Fruits & vegetables- for fair and glowing skin

Amla or Indian gooseberry for fair skin

Amla contain vitamin A & C, amla helps in increasing the collagen production which is essential to keep your skin looking taut and glowing. 

The best way to eat amla is to consume it on an empty stomach in its juice form, early morning. It slow down the degeneration of collagen and also help the body produce more.

Apple for fair skin

This fruit has vitamin C in abundance which keeps your skin firm and gives it an inner radiance. Apple also prevents free-radical damage which causes premature skin ageing. To ensure glowing skin, you can eat one apple every day. You can also apply the juice of an apple on your face and wash it off with water after 10 minutes.

The high antioxidant content in apples prevents cell and tissue damage, and aging. It helps minimize wrinkles and fine lines, keeping the bowels clean. Apply apple juice mixed with honey on your face; let it dry, and wash off. This is a very good hydrating face mask.

Beetroot for fair skin

It is a rich source of anthocyanins which a powerful antioxidants that prevents appearance of wrinkles. Beetroot can be difficult to digest if eaten raw. 

You can add a bit of lemon juice on it to reap in its full benefits and add a zingy taste to it. Rubbing beetroot on your lips will leave a pink tinge on it. 

Carrot for fair skin

Carrot is high in beta carotene which is converted by the body to vitamin A. Not only will it give your skin a glow, it will also fight wrinkles and improve skin, making it healthy. Drinking carrot juice with its fiber intact is also a great way to boost your beauty.

Carrots are high in beta carotene, an antioxidant that is converted to vitamin A inside the body. It helps repair skin tissue and protects against the sun’s harsh rays. 

Lemon for fair skin

 This fruit has high content of vitamin C which is needed for the synthesis of collagen. Squeeze a lemon in a glass of warm water and have it first thing in the morning. You can add a spoonful of honey also in the mixture. 

It has a high Vitamin C content and natural bleaching properties, making it a good cleanser that lightens blemishes, acne scars, spots and skin tone. This fights cellulite and clears your skin from within.

Pumpkin seeds for fair skin

These little bits are packed with zinc which is vital in the creation of new skin cells. They also improve skin tone and control oil production in your skin. 

Pumpkin seeds are a skin superfood because they’re so high in zinc. Zinc protects your cell membranes, helps maintain collagen, and promotes skin renewal. 

Spinach for fair skin

Loaded with antioxidants, spinach can help reduce the onset of wrinkles. It also helps strengthen skin tissue and possesses anti-inflammatory properties which flush out toxins, giving clear, glowing skin. 

Spinach juice too is effective in keeping your skin healthy. Here are the health benefits of spinach juice.

Strawberry for fair skin

 The presence of malic acid in strawberry makes it a natural whitening agent. It also has loads of antioxidants which lend your skin a healthy radiance from within.Eat a handful of strawberries or simple mash it to make a paste and add yoghurt and honey. 

Apply it on your face and in 15 minutes get glowing skin. Strawberry can also be added to your smoothie. Also try these other berries for their health benefits. 

Sweet potato for fair skin

Sweet potato is anti-inflammatory in nature, it has high vitamin A content which helps fight acne-causing bacteria. The presence of vitamin C further improves skin tone and heals pimple scars. Eat it as an evening snack. 

Boil sweet potato and add salt, pepper and lemon juice to it. If it is treated with wax or is too shiny in appearance then it is a good idea to peel off the skin. 

Tomato for fair skin

Tomato is rich in an antioxidant called lycopene which has anti-ageing properties and also acts a sunscreen from within. Since tomato is acidic in nature, its pulp helps tighten pores and prevent pimples. 

Tomatoes are usually a staple of Indian diet and added to several dishes in a puree form or may be consume in raw form.

Banana for fair skin

This is one fruit that's abundantly available in India all through the year. We know it's a good source of iron, magnesium and potassium and helps reduce menstrual cramps. The effect of banana on skin too is not something that can be ignored. Bananas are rich in vitamin A, B and E and hence works as an anti-aging agent. A fresh mashed banana facial can do wonders for your skin.

Bananas, being rich in Vitamin A, Vitamin B and Vitamin E, act as an anti-ageing agent. Opt for a face pack comprising a freshly-mashed banana mixed with honey to get glowing skin. They are a rich source of fiber, minerals, magnesium and potassium, which aid proper blood circulation in our body and build immunity. Bananas are a great substitute for unhealthy snacks we tend to eat in-between meals.

Orange for fair skin

 Rich in vitamin C that improves skin texture. Like apple, orange too contains collagen that slows skin aging process. Rub the insides of orange on your skin to tighten the skin. Oranges can be dried and powdered and used as a natural scrub. Like lemon, oranges too help clear skin blemishes.

Oranges are a rich source of Vitamin C, and help in improving the skin texture. They remove blemishes and slow down the process of ageing naturally. Dry orange peels and powder them; store the powder in an airtight container. Use this as a natural scrub once or twice a week to get clear and glowing skin.

Papaya for fair skin

Papaya is rich in antioxidants and contain a special enzyme called papain that can kill dead cells and cure skin impurities. A glass of papaya milk or just applying the flesh of papaya on your skin can do wonders to your skin.

A rich source of antioxidants and an enzyme called papain, papaya can banish skin impurities and remove dead skin cells when used on the skin topically.

Mango for fair skin

It is called the king of fruits for not just its taste but also for health benefits. The soft pulpy fruit has an amazing effect on skin too. 

Rich in vitamin-A and rich antioxidants, it fights against skin aging, regenerates skin cells and restores the elasticity of skin.

Kiwi and Pomegranate for fair skin

 Consumption and application of Kiwi fruit helps ensure healthy, clear, beautiful skin. Kiwis are rich in pectin and fiber, which strengthen digestion. They also may prevent wrinkles and blemishes.  Pomegranates are also superb for overall skin health. This red fruit is power-packed with antioxidants which fight against free radicals, control acne, and prevent wrinkles.

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)- help to prevent pellagra

Niacin is a water-souluble vitamin, also known as vitamin B3. Niacin is the generic term for nicotinic acid (pyridine 3-carboxylic acid) and nicotinamide (nicotinic acid amide) and the coenzyme forms of the vitamin.

Nicotinamide is the active form, which functions as a constituent of two coenzymes, namely, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). In the forms of these coenzymes, niacin functions in many biological redox reactions which activate about 200 dehydrogenases essential to electron transport and other cellular respiratory reactions. NAD functions as an electron carrier for intracellular respiration as well as a co-factor for enzymes involved in the oxidation (catabolism) of fats, proteins, carbohydrates and alcohol to produce energy. NADP functions as a hydrogen donor in reductive biosynthesis (anabolism), such as in fatty acid and steroid synthesis. Like NAD, NADP is a cofactor for enzymes, such as in the oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate to ribose-5-phosphate in the pentose phosphate pathway.

In non-redox reactions, NAD is the substrate for two classes of enzymes that separate the niacin moiety from NAD and transfer ADP-ribose to proteins. A third class of enzymes catalyses the formation of cyclic ADP-ribose. This molecule also functions within cells to provoke the release of calcium ions from internal storage sites and may also plays a role in cell-signaling.

Deficiencies of Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

Niacin deficiency includes fatigue, poor appetite, diarrhea, irritability, headache, emotional instability and possible memory loss. These may lead to changes in the skin, mucosa of the mouth, stomach and intestinal tract and the nervous system. These changes are called “pellagra”, which means “raw skin” and are most pronounced in the parts of the skin exposed to sunlight. Other signs and symptoms include dizziness, vomiting, constipation or diarrhoea, and inflammation of the tongue and gastric mucosa. The neurological symptoms can include fatigue, sleeplessness, depression, memory loss and visual impairment. If untreated, pellagra is ultimately fatal.

Presently, pellagra is rarely seen in most industrialized countries except among chronic alcoholics and individuals with conditions that disrupt tryptophan pathways. In more recent times, pellagra has been reported in India, and parts of China and Africa.

Food sources of Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

Important sources of preformed niacin include beef, liver, pork, fish, anchovies, peanuts and other nuts, whole grains and whole-meal wheat flour. In general, food rich in protein, with the exception of tryptophan-poor grains, can satisfy some of the requirement for niacin. Human milk contains a higher concentration of niacin than cow’s milk. In plants, especially in mature cereal grains like corn and wheat, niacin may be bound to sugar molecules in the form of glycosides, thus significantly reducing niacin bioavailability. In unprepared foods, niacin is present mainly in the form of the cellular pyridine nucleotides NAD and NADP. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the coenzymes can occur during the course of food preparation. Significant amounts of niacin can be lost if large quantities of liquid are used in preparation and cooking of food sources.

Niacin Chemistry

Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are colourless crystalline substances; each is insoluble or only sparingly soluble in organic solvents. Nicotinic acid is slightly soluble in water and ethanol; nicotinamide is very soluble in water and moderately soluble in ethanol. The two compounds have similar absorption spectra in water, with absorption maxima at 262 nm.

Nicotinic acid is zwitterionic in nature; at high pH it is negatively charged at the carboxylic function, while at low pH it is positively charged at the pyridinyl nitrogen. Thus it is considered an amphoteric molecule because it forms salts with acids as well as bases.

Both nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are very stable in dry form; in solution nicotinamide is hydrolysed by acids and bases to yield nicotinic acid.

Health Benefits of Niacin

1. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) helps to lowers LDL Cholesterol

Niacin has been used since the 1950s to treat high cholesterol. In fact, it can lower levels of “bad” LDL cholesterol by 5–20%. However, niacin is not the primary treatment for high cholesterol due to its possible side effects. It’s primarily used as a cholesterol-lowering treatment for people who can’t tolerate statins.

2. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) help to increases HDL Cholesterol

In addition to lowering LDL cholesterol, niacin also raises “good” HDL cholesterol. It does this by helping to stop the breakdown of apolipoprotein A1, a protein that helps make HDL. Studies have shown that niacin raises HDL cholesterol levels by 15–35%.

3. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) helps to lowers Triglycerides

Niacin’s third benefit for blood fats is that it can lower triglycerides by 20–50%. It does this by stopping the action of an enzyme that’s involved in triglyceride synthesis. Consequently, this lowers the production of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL).

Therapeutic doses are needed to achieve these effects on cholesterol and triglyceride levels.

4. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) help to prevent Heart Disease

It can help reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, both of which are involved in atherosclerosis, the hardening of the arteries. Some research has suggested niacin therapy, either alone or in combination with statins, could help lower the risk of health problems related to heart disease.

5. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Help to treat Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which the body attacks and destroys insulin-creating cells in the pancreas.

There’s research to suggest that niacin could help protect those cells and possibly even lower the risk of type 1 diabetes in at-risk children.

As a result, people with diabetes who take niacin to treat high cholesterol levels also need to monitor their blood sugar levels carefully.

6. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) boosts Brain Function

Our brain needs niacin, as a part of the coenzymes NAD and NADP, to get energy and function properly. In fact, brain fog and even psychiatric symptoms have been associated with niacin deficiency.

Some types of schizophrenia can be treated with niacin, as it helps undo the damage to brain cells that occurs as a result of deficiency.

7. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) improves Skin Function

Niacin helps protect skin cells from sun damage, whether it’s used orally or applied to the skin in lotions. And recent research suggests it may help prevent some types of skin cancer.

8. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) may Reduce Symptoms of Arthritis

One preliminary study showed that niacin helped ease some of the symptoms of osteoarthritis, improving joint mobility and reducing the need for NSAIDs.

9. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) help to treats Pellagra

Severe niacin deficiency causes a condition called pellagra. Thus, taking a niacin supplement is the main treatment for pellagra. Niacin deficiency is rare in industrialized countries. However, it may occur along with other diseases, such as alcoholism, anorexia disease.

Vitamin B1- Anti beri-beri vitamin

Also known as: Thiamine

Important for: Nervous system, muscles, heart function, healthy growth

The active principle of vitamin B1 was discovered in 1897 by Dutch physician and pathologist Christiaan Eijkman, who was researching the causes of beriberi, a common and sometimes fatal disease that causes fatigue, weakness and heart failure. Eijkman worked with chickens that were fed cooked white rice and unpolished uncooked rice — and he discovered that diet had a huge impact on which birds lived and which birds got sick and died. Later research on Eijkman’s “anti-beriberi factor” by Polish-American scientist Casimir Funk led to the coining of the word “vitamin” in 1912. By 1926, vitamin B1 was isolated and given the name thiamine. Eijkman was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1929 for his research around vitamin B1.

Vitamin B1 is a water soluble vitamin that is part of the vitamin B complex group. Vitamin B1 plays an important role in energy metabolism and is required for proper functioning of the nervous system and muscles, which contribute to a functional cardiovascular system.

Thiamin (also known as vitamin B1 or aneurin) was the first B vitamin discovered. Deficiency of the vitamin results in the disease beri-beri, the first nutrient deficiency studied in Malaya in the beginning of the 20th century.

Chemistry of Thiamine

Thiamine is a colorless compound with the chemical formula C12H17N4OS.

It is soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. Thiamine decomposes if heated.

 It consists out of a pyrimidine- and a thiazol ring, which are synthesized independently and linked afterwards.Vitamin B1 is de novo produced by many plants and microorganisms. Humans and animals have to take it up by nutrition. They are only able to do the phosphorylation reaction of the thiamin molecule. Thiamin is found free and as mono-, di- and triphosphate. The different forms can be transfered into each other.  The metabolic active form is thiamin diphosphate in the body and thiamin triphosphate in the brain.

 Thiamin diphosphate (TDP) works as thermostable coenzyme in many enzymes of the carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism. In most reactions TDP catalyzes the cleavage of C-C bonds.

 In the nervous system vitamin B1 is needed for the stimulation of nerve cells. The classical disease of patients with a lack of vitamin B1 is Beriberi, which is known from regions where people eating predominantly white rice. The symtoms are paralysis, muscle dystrophia and heart failure. Other diseases are the Wernicke encephalopathy, the Korsakow syndrome and some forms of the Landry`s paralysis. In industrialized countries alcoholism seems to be the most important reason for a lack of vitamin B1. In alcoholics the thiamin resorption is disturbed.

Due to a damage of the liver the storage capacity of vitamin B1 is reduced.

Source of vitamin B1

Animal Sources: Fish (eel, tuna), pork, kidney, heart, liver

Grain/Fruit/Vegetable Sources: Brewer’s yeast (best source), whole grain cereals and bread, leafy vegetables, potatoes, dried legumes, dried fruit, nuts

Vitamin B1 deficiency

A deficiency of vitamin B1 alone is uncommon because it usually occurs in combination with a deficit in other B vitamins. However, there are health problems associated with low levels of vitamin B1, including:

• Delayed growth and development

• Impaired immune functions

• Fatigue

• Difficulty breathing

• Loss of mental alertness

• Heart damage

• Weight loss

• Weakness and muscular atrophy

• Night blindness

• Eye lesions

• Paralysis

Functions of Vitamin B1

Vitamin B1 help Energy Production:  Sugar is the principal source of energy in our body where it is oxidized to form a usable form of energy due to the presence of vitamin B1. It is part of a complex enzyme system called the pyruvate dehydrogenase system, which helps in the oxidation of sugar.

Vitamin B1 help in development of Myelin Sheaths: Vitamin B1 helps in the proper development of myelin sheaths around nerves. 

Vitamin B1 help in Cardiac Function: This vitamin helps in the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which is used to relay messages between the nerves and muscles and to ensure proper cardiac function. Vitamin B1 deficiency can therefore result in irregular cardiac functions. 

Vitamin B1 help to Prevents Alzheimer’s Disease: Vitamin B1 is thought to slow down the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. People suffering from this disease have benefited when treated with vitamin B1 supplements of 100 mg per day. 

Biochemistry of vitamin B1

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) and its derivatives serve many roles in the body. It functions primarily as a cofactor to help enzymes perform their molecular reactions. Several well known biochemical reactions in which thiamine plays a crucial component include:

(1) Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.

(2) Conversion of α-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA in the Krebs cycle.

(3) Conversion of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to ribose-5-phosphate.

(4) It is used by the enzyme branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase.

All of these reactions are crucial to human biochemistry. The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA feeds important molecules into the Krebs cycle, which allows the cell to produce energy.

The conversion of α-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA is necessary for the Krebs cycle to continue "spinning". Without vitamin B1 (thiamine) the cycle would slow causing decreased energy production.

Thiamine is also important in the production of NADPH via the pentose phosphate pathway. NADPH plays a crucial role in biochemistry because it donates its electron pairs to numerous anabolic reactions.

The breakdown of branched chain amino acids such as valine, isoleucine, and leucine are also dependent on thiamine. The product that results from the breakdown of these amino acids are α-keto acids. They can also be fed into the Krebs cycle to replete molecules in the pathway that may have been siphoned off for other purposes.

Since thiamine is involved in many energy producing pathways it is found most abundantly in tissues that produce and use lots of energy. These include, but are certainly not limited to, the brain, muscle, and liver. In the United States the recommended daily allowance is 1.1mg for women and 1.2mg for men.

Wernicke’s Encephalopathy and Korsakoff’s Psychosis

Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome typically consists of two components, a short–lived and severe condition called Wernicke’s encephalopathy (WE) and a long–lasting and debilitating condition known as Korsakoff’s psychosis.

WE is an acute life–threatening neurologic disorder caused by thiamine deficiency. In affluent countries, where people normally receive adequate thiamine from their diets, thiamine deficiency is most commonly caused by alcoholism; accordingly, in these countries WE is primarily found in alcoholics.